History Of Music Essays (2369 words) - Harmony, Chants,

History of Music History of Music It can be argued that the vanguard of development has always been reflected in the arts of a culture. It is the poets, the dreamers and artists who are the architects of the future; the ones who ?build the world they want to live in, the ones who dream out loud'1. Music is an elaborate art form, tempered by the emotions of those who create it and as such the dreams, creations and inventions are partly the products - or at least artifacts - of the world around them. As such, the social, economic and technological changes in society reflect themselves in the arts of the time also. The common question "Does art imitate life, or does life imitate art?" when inspected proves rhetorical: they are parallel mirrors which reflect each other. W.H. Auden best expressed this when he said, "A verbal art like poetry is reflective; it stops to think. Music is immediate, it goes on to become." Tracing the course of musical development through history shows how closely music (of all the art forms) in particular represents the time in which it was written. The "immediacy" Auden speaks of is evidenced in music's ability to associate itself with a specific point in time or event and always remind the listener of that time or place. It is impossible to analyse individual interpretation of music, however it is interesting to examine what caused musicians to write what they did, when they did. The personal interpretation or association of a work is superimposed; it is the music "going on to become." By correlating musical developments with historical events or conditions, we can see not only why certain styles of music were written when they were, but also how the times dictated the styles as much as the styles dictated the times. The exact origin of music is unknown. We can only form educated guesses from the evidence that remains today: pictures on fragments on broken vases of musical instruments, or cave paintings of dancing figures. It is generally accepted that music was first used in prehistoric times in spiritual or magical rituals. This knowledge comes from the fact that music still forms a vital part of most religious ceremonies today. Whereas with ancient pictures, we can imagine missing pieces, or envision brighter colours, when it comes to music we have no idea of what instruments were used, or the sounds they made. Our relationship with the music of the time is as intangible to us as if we had only smelled the dyes of the paintings we see. Greek music is just about the first artifact, chronologically speaking, of record which can begin to make sense to us. Although there is evidence that music and music performance played a large part in Greek culture in the manuscripts discovered from their civilisation, there are very few actual artifacts of the music itself, either vocal or instrumental that have survived. It is impossible to fully understand what little notation that has been discovered to properly reproduce an accurate performance or even imagine what it could sound like. Greek civilisation was heavily reliant on mythology. According to Greek mythology, music was considered divine; a creation of the gods. It was believed that the gods themselves invented music and musical instruments. Music and religion (mythology) played an integral part in both the public and private lives of the Greeks. Many early myths were those which explained the powerful forces of music. The Greek were perhaps the first to iterate music's powerful effect on human emotions. In Greek history, music was a much debated topic. Philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle both had very different views on the power and importance it had. Pythagoras developed the numerical octave system still used to represent music today. This was critical in helping us to understand today what we find in artifacts of the past. Entertainment in Greece was highly regarded and prioritised, as it represented wealth and status. The Greeks developed most of their music in theatre and by the time Greece became a province of the Roman Empire, music dominated most dramatic performances as well as social activities. We have far better evidence and examples of the music played in the society of the Roman Empire. Most of the music created in the Roman Empire originated in the music of the Greeks. Despite this, there was definite musical activity in the later Roman Empire. An ample amount of evidence survived for instruments and a good deal of theory also. But by and large, Greek music remained the most popular in society in

DWI

DWI Drinking and DrivingOBJECTIVEAs one of the leading causes of automobile accidents and deaths, the dangers involved in DWI (Driving While Intoxicated) needs to be brought to the attention of the drivers and the general public. The ultimate goal of this project is to bring a better understanding about DWI to the public in an attempt to enforce safety on the roads.OVERVIEW New.movieThis is the main movie. Start up the project from this movie. All other movies will be opened up as movies in a window. Most importantly, it contains the main menu which includes the help function (dice), navigational buttons (beeper), and the two main icons (glass key.) As the background music, a jazz tune by Joe Pass was borrowed. Mouse clicks on the navigational tools will make highlights on the buttons (along with descriptions on the LCD) and sound off a corresponding puppet sound (note that the 'chaching' or 'cough' sound plays only while the mouse is down.)Pink Floyd in January 1968 Left to right: Maso n, B...Some functions such as volume control, quit, and help are under construction. Dash.pict (dash)This frame was intended to create an interactive driver's seat in which the user can learn about the functionalities of the gauges and instruments. However, this page frame is currently under construction. Once it is finished, the following shall be available. · Each gauge and instrument will light up (rollover effect) and then give the name a brief description of the functionality (by sound.) · Detailed information can be seen with a mouse click on the gauge which moves the frame to the next destination. · Driver's education tutorial (manual and/or automatic transmission.) Car_flash.movie (car)This movie functions as a sub-menu page frame for the 'Driving' theme. Putting the cursor on the topic bar will show a brief...

Assagnment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Assagnment - Essay Example We will focus on the biggest area of its business, television. Its television division is a global company that broadcasts all over the world. Its main competitor, Company XYZ, is also a global company that broadcasts internationally. The company’s working principle is to provide the audience with what they want to see on television to obtain more viewers without sacrificing the quality of its television programs. For a television station, it is sometimes hard to weigh which is a more important aspect of television programs: quantity of viewers or quality of shows. Though many people may think that quality shows amounts to many viewers, it is often not the case. Many times, viewers switch on their television sets just to view on a program (or channel) they have patronized for a long time. It does not necessarily mean that what the station offers are what the viewers want to see. The reason for this is mainly because big television stations would rather invest on formulaic, tested programs than on risky, novel concepts that may cause the station millions. On a business financial side, this is an understandable fact. However, one can also see that if this principle continues to pre-empt the conceptualization and realization of fresh and excellent ideas, it may spell disaster in the long run. There is the risk of having the main competitor station come up with a good idea that may be a hit to the viewers. It will be a tough truth to accept if this particular â€Å"hit† idea was initially thought of by the station but was not realized due to fear of â€Å"too much risk†. This is the main reason why ABC Company thought of splitting up the Research and Concept Development Group. It is to have a section that would focus also on the qualitative side of things. This is the department that will be discussed in this paper. This department is divided into quantitative and qualitative

Marketing Strategies Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Marketing Strategies - Research Paper Example When the companies take the decision for expanding and diversifying their businesses across the national boundaries, it is important for them to take into consideration various factors that are important for the successful operation of the company on the international scale (Keegan and Green 2008). The focus is to formulate a strategy regarding the international operations of Algerian wine in the UK market. Algerian Wine is a wine that is made from a country of North Africa in Algeria and is among the renowned name in the history of wine. Algeria is known to be one of the oldest producers of wine in the world. For the Romans, Algeria is considered to be the breadbasket and vineyard throughout the history of viticulture starting from the Roman Empire. Algerian wines have been seen to prosper the world with constant prosperity because of the fact that they have their own unique characteristics. Algerian wines are produced in five major regions that include The MEDEA region, The ZACCCAR region, The DAHRA region, The MASCARA region, and The TLEMCEN region. The aim of the company is to export the Algerian Wine called Coteaux De Mascara from Algeria into the market of UK. Coteaux De Mascara is termed to be the red wine from the Atlas Mountains. This wine belongs to The MASCARA region. This region has been well renowned in terms of producing wines with distinguished features. The wines produced in this region are considered to be robust and well structured. They are of good colour, and consist of high level of alcohol up-to 14 percent. All the wines of Algeria are distinguished with taste of deep berry flavours and the fragrance of roses and raspberries. For the purpose of data collection, various scholarly journals and articles will be selected, which will help in retrieving adequate information in relation to the international marketing. Secondary data will be helpful in collection of adequate and authentic information.

Dutch poltical issues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Dutch poltical issues - Essay Example Furthermore, he spoke against the European Union. During his speech in Hague, he was against the Moroccans who had settled into Netherlands. He incited the public against the Moroccans. The crowd was happy with what he was saying. He asked them anything that was racist, and the crowd replied positively with enthusiasm. It was similar to what the Nazi minister of propaganda was doing to the public. He incited the Germans into war. There was outrage among the Moroccans living in Netherlands. Mr. Wilder was a racist and did not take into consideration equality of races. It is against any government’s will to offer equality to all human beings. Every individual has the right to freedom in any county. People regarded the Moroccans as thieves and criminals. There was no sufficient evidence to say this statement. It showed biases according to biological and social attributes. Wilder was a racist in nature. He did not consider the will of the people he represented them in parliament. By saying the Moroccans should leave Netherlands, he tries to clarify his message of hatred towards the Muslims. Wilder openly shows the importance of Judeo, and he should follow its teaching which advocates for justice for all (Visser, 2013). Robbery is a very serious crime. If an innocent person is in the robbery scene, the activities in the scene may affect him. The robbers may cause bodily hard and pose the danger to life. In Noord-Brabant, there was a scene of a robbery, and a woman shot dead the two robbers. She acted on self-defense. This paper is going to show the reasons why the woman acted wrong in doing the shooting (Elkins, 2013). The paper disagrees with the idea of a woman acting on self-defense. Netherland’s constitution prohibits against use of guns. Possession of guns would make the civilians prone to attacks from any quarter. It would enhance robbery and many youths will engage in criminal activities. The constitution gave powers to the police. They have the

Role Of Chromosome 21 In Alzheimers Disease Biology Essay

Role Of Chromosome 21 In Alzheimers Disease Biology Essay Down syndrome is a genetic disease that caused by trisomy of Human chromosome 21. Down syndrome is common chromosomal disorder of mental retardation in humans. It is caused by the three types of chromosomal abnormalities namely, free trisomy 21, translocation Down syndrome and mosaic Down syndrome. Most of the Down syndrome individuals experience Alzheimer-like neuropathology like dementia, neurofibrillary tangles and many others. Genes that are in Chromosome 21 which includes SOD-1, DSCR1, APP gene and S100B, are highly involved in the relationship between Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease. Besides the genes involved, other factors like oxidative stress and hormone will be discussed in this review too. There are two different types of hypotheses associated with Down syndrome namely, developmental instability and gene-dosage effect. Introduction Down syndrome is a common chromosomal disorder of mental retardation in humans. It is caused by the trisomy of chromosome 21. Down syndrome is named after John Laugdon Down in 1866.There is three different types of chromosomal abnormalities namely, free trisomy 21, translocation Down syndrome and mosaic Down syndrome. Over 90% of the time, non disjunction and failure to separate the chromosome pairs during meiosis are the principal cause of Down syndrome. Down syndrome is named after John Laugdon Down in 1866. The first person that published the relationship between Alzheimers disease-type neuropathology to clinical dementia in adults with Down syndrome was Jervis in 1948 and the person to demonstrate this disorder is due to the trisomy of chromosome 21 was by Jerome Lejeune in 1959. The symptoms associated with Down syndrome are diminished muscle tone, congenital heart disease, small skull, slanting eyes and retarded growth and development. Individuals with Down syndrome usually hav e the tendency of developing neuropathological changes like Alzheimer disease. Down syndrome has an overall incidence of 1 in 1000 live births when the mother aged 30, increasing 9 in 1000 births when the mother is aged 40 (Hook et al., 1983). Alzheimer disease is a neurodegenerative disease which maybe is found in Down syndrome individuals. This disease is named after a neuropathologist, Alois Alzheimer in 1906. Down syndrome individuals experience the Alzheimer-like neuropathology by their mid-40s. In the beginning, Alzheimer disease affects parts of brain like memory and languages. But after a period of time, this disease will progress and cause problems in all aspects of our life. Alzheimer disease has 2 forms, familial and sporadic forms. Familial Alzheimer disease is a rare disease which is genetically acquired. There are mainly 3 types of lesions that are observed in Alzheimer disease. It is then caused by the mutations in several genes like APP which will lead to the over production of the amyloid-beta protein. The most common form of Alzheimer disease is sporadic form which contributes to 90% of Alzheimer disease cases. The first type is the neuritic plaques, extracellular deposits of fibrillar beta amyloid surrou nded by degenerating neuronal processes and terminals. The next type of lesions is intraneuronal neurofibrillary tangles, primarily composed of abnormally hyperphospholated tau protein and lastly, it is vascular beta-amyloidosis associated with fibrillar amyloid deposition within the vascular wall. Over time, these pathological processes contribute to synaptic and neuronal loss, deterioration of neuronal networks, brain atrophy and dementia (Victor Ropper, 2001). Nowadays, people have longer life span and hence the Alzherimer disease become much more worrying for us as it will become a major public concern. There were 26.6 million of people that are suffering of the Alzheimer disease in 2006 and this number will continue to grow. It is then estimated to affect 1 in 85 people worldwide by the year of 2050. In fact, it was not until 1985 that research explicitly focused on aging related changes in health status and cognition of adults with intellectual disabilities, and in particular those with Down syndrome, began in earnest (Janicki et al, 1985). In Down syndrome, there are two different types of hypotheses associated namely, developmental instability and gene-dosage effect. The developmental instability hypothesis indicated that the correct balance of gene expression in the development is being disrupted. But this hypothesis is being questioned since other autosomal trisomy syndromes do not lead to the same clinical pattern (Shapiro et al,2001). In another case, the gene-dosage effect hypothesis, specific gene that is over expressed is responsible for the Down syndrome phenotypic abnormalities which indicated is trisomy of the Chromosome 21 (Delabar et al,1993). The Genes In chromosome 21, the most critical part that affects Down syndrome phenotype is the long arm(q) of chromosome 21. The critical region in chromosome 21 that is important to Alzheimer disease are amyloid precursor protein (APP) located at Chromosome 21q21.3 , superoxide dismutase gene (SOD-1) located at Chromosome 21q22.11, Beta-site APP-cleaving 2 enzyme (BACE2) located at Chromosome 21q22.3, carbonyl reductase (CBR) located at Chromosome 21q22.1 and cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS) located at Chromosome 21q22.3 . The critical region in chromosome 21 that is important to Down syndrome are glycinamide formyl transferase (GART) located at Chromosome 21q22.1, SOD-1, Cu2+/Zn2+ superoxide dismutase, beta subunit of S100 calcium-binding protein (S100B) located at Chromosome 21q22.3, Down syndrome critical region gene 1 (DSCR1) located at 21q22.3 and Intersectin 1 (ITSN1). The Amyloid precursor protein (APP) APP gene is located on human chromosome 21 and codes for a transmembrane protein that is expressed in both neurons and astrocytes. This gene is important in the relationship between Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease. Overexpression of APP gene will lead to the increase production of amyloid-beta protein which is the main protein component of senile plaque. The cause of the familial Alzheimer disease is by the mutation n the APP gene. The amyloid-beta protein is formed by the proteolytic cleavage of the large, type-1 integral membrane-spanning glycoprotein APP by secretases. It has two different pathways, the amyloidogenic pathway and the nonamyloidogenic pathway. The amyloidogenic pathway is beta-secretase cleaves APP to generate APPsB, a 100-kDa soluble NH2-terminal fragment and a 12-kDa membranebound carboxyl-terminal fragment. Hence, the nonamyloidogenic pathway is that cleaved within its amyloid-beta region (aminoacids 16-17), at the alpha-secretase cleavage site, to produce an N-terminal fragment, APPsa, and a C-terminal APP fragment of 83 amino acids (Kang et al,1987). In normal mechanism of the brain, there is stable distribution of beta-amyloid in the brain and this intracellular beta-amyloid is essentially in the entire life indicated that beta-amyloid within neurons represents a product of normal metabolism. The two most common species of beta-amyloid are AB40 and AB42. Beta-amyloid will start to accumulate during younger times and with increasing in age, the amount will progressively increase. During middle ages like 35 years, beta-amyloid associated neuropathology will accelerate tremendously. The soluble APP is the most toxic APP which can have neurotrophic activities and longer aggregating forms. The amyloid-beta protein at high concentration will lead to neurotoxic whereas at low concentration it can function as a neurotrophic factor. When amyloid-beta protein is oxidized, the solubility will decrease and hen will result in the accumulation of the intracellular microglial. This accumulation will increase the concentration of amyloid-beta protein and lead to more plaque formation. Amyloid-beta protein will also induce oxidative stress directly and activating microglia indirectly (Yankner et al, 1990). Although it has been a strong standing that amyloid-beta protein contributes to the Alzheimer disease but there is evidence that amyloid-beta protein is very useful in our body. Amyloid-beta protein provides an important role in both synapse and in synaptic structure-functional plasticity that underlie learning and memory (Koudinov et al, 2001). The autopsy studies in brains of older Down syndrome individuals showed that senile plaque and neurofibrillary tangles and in the brains and some indivuals show a much earlier onset. This maybe suggest that there is an apoptotic action happening and may result in the large amount of neuronal death in the brain. It has been studies to show that APP metabolism in involved in the peripheral tissues. Changes occurs in APP metabolism is noted in the platelets, lymphocytes and fibroblasts in both Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease individuals. This change in APP showed that there is two to three fold of increase plasma concentration in both amyloid-beta protein(1-40) and amyloid-beta protein(1-42) in Down syndrome individuals and also increase of mRNA of APP. The Beta-site APP-cleaving 2 enzyme (BACE2) BACE is a transmembrane aspartyl protease and has a second protein called BACE2 that is 55% identical to BACE.BACE2 has two active site motifs of aspartic protinases which are located at residues 93 to 96 of DTGS and residues 289 to 292 of DSGT. BACE2 has a minor cleavage site at the beta-site of APP and also a major cleavage in the beta-amyloid region that is close to the alpha-secretase site. BACE2 is said to contribute to the amyloid-beta protein production. Some authors investigate the expression of BACE2 in the frontal context of the Down syndrome patients and hence, the immunoreactivity of BACE2 in Down syndrome patients with Alzheimer disease and control is compared. The results show that in neurorofibrillary tangle-bearing neurons there is BACE2 but not in those Down syndrome patient without Alzheimer disease. So, this will give an indication that BACE2 contribute to the Alzheimer-type neuropathology of Down syndrome (Barbiero et al, 2002). In Alzheimer individual platelets, there is a significant amount of reduction in the BACE2 which suggest that this BACE2 cause increase Alzheimer neuropathology. The Down syndrome critical region gene 1 (DSCR1) and The Intersectin 1 (ITSN1) The DSCR1 gene is located at the human chromosome 21 and it encodes for the calcipressin 1 which inhibit calcineurin activity by interacting with calcineurin A. So, phosphorylation of calcipressin 1 will inhibit the activity of calcineurin and this will allow the control the half life of calcipressin by increasing its degradation. To protect the cells from getting damaged, negative feedback mechanism of DSCR1 gene should be activated. In brain, heart and skeletal muscle, the DSCR1 is highly expressed. It was shown that DSCR1 is over expressed in the individual brain of the Down syndrome fetuses and post mortem and for those Alzheimer disease individuals, they also showed DSCR1 mRNA levels to be two to three times higher than the control. Basically, overexpression of DSCR1 can affect two calcineurin-dependent pathways by blocking calcineurin activity. So, when there is an increase of DSCR1, it may disrupt endocytosis and the vesicle recycling because of the calcineurin-dependent dephosphin dephosphorylation. Next, the hyper The ITSN1gene is located in human chromosome 21 and it encodes for endocytic protein ITSN1. In this gene, there are two major mRNA transcripts which divided into 6kb and 11kb, short and long isoforms. These isoforms are expressed in the brain but in different cell types. It has been detected in western blotting that long form is neuronal specific while the short form is in glial cells and for those Down syndrome individual, there is an over expression of the long isoform in the brain. These genes are involved in the neruronal endocytosis in the pathology of the Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease. In neuronal endocytosis, it is very important for the neuronal repair and survival as the secretory vesicles need to be reuptake during the synaptic transmission after any neuronal damage. The Minibrain-Kinase Gene The gene minibrain-kinase maybe associated with Down syndrome. This gene is encoded to the Down syndrome critical region 21q22.2. There has been studies that showed that the over expression will cause congnitive impairments with Down syndrome and increases in apoptotic cell death and reduction in neuronal differentiation which altered neuronal plasticity and intellectual disability observed in Down syndrome (Murakami et al, 2006). The Immune System Astrocytes also play an important role in old Down syndrome patients brain. Upon activation in the brain of the Down syndrome patient, it will express more of the S100B, an astrocyte-derived neurite growth-promoting factor. S100B is associated in dystrophic neurite formation and in plaque evolution and also in neurofibrillary tangle evolution in Alzheimer disease. S100B is secreted by astrocytes and increase the intraneuronal free calcium levels and stimulates the growth of neuronal processes. In the studies of S100B, it showed that the number of astrocytes expressing S100B in Down syndrome patient was about twice as that to the controls of all ages. Another way to test for the relationship between Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease is by the complement cascade, C1q. C1q accumulates in amyloid-beta protein deposits in neurons within Down syndrome brain. In this case, the increase level of C1q will suggest that it is responsible for the acceleration phase of Alzheimer disease pathogenesis in Down syndrome patient (Stoltzner et al, 2000). The Oxidative Stress Another factor that is involved in both Alzheimer disease and Down syndrome is oxidative stress. As we all know that oxygen is very important for life but the byproducts are very harmful. These byproducts include reactive oxygen species like superoxide and hydroxyl and hydrogen peroxide and peroxynitrite (Andersen et al.,2004). The amyloid precursor protein and the cytoplasmic enzyme Cu2+/Zn2+ superoxide dismutase (SOD-1) are responsible for reactive oxygen species homeostasis. SOD-1 is responsible for the first line of antioxidant defense by catalyzing the dismutation of O2à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢- to molecular oxygen (O2) and H2O2, which can be converted by catalase (CAT) and by (selenium-containing) glutathione peroxidase (GPX) to water. Since SOD-1 is located at chromosome 21, so the trisomy of chromosome 21 will lead to accumulation of hydrogen peroxide because of the imbalance in the ratio of SOD-1 to CAT and GPX. Hence, this will lead to the increase of neuronal cell death which also c ontributes to the progressive mental decline in both Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease. In peripheral tissues, SOD-1 has 50% more in patients than normal in the immune system. Hence, it will disrupt the immune system to make the patients to be weaker (Benzi et al, 1997). The E2F-1 Gene The E2F-1 gene is located in human chromosome 20. It encodes a protein E2F-1 transcriptional factor E2F-1. This transcription factor plays major role in in the control of cell cycle, action of tumor suppressor proteins and DNA damage to apoptosis. The ETS2 Gene The ETS2 gene is located on human chromosome 21q22.2. This gene encodes for a protein Protein C-ets-2 which is a transcriptional factor of beta-APP gene. It will specifically bind to the beta-APP promoter and work with transcription factor AP1 (Wolvetang et al, 2003). The Oestrogen Hormone Oestrogen has a role of protecting neurons from the toxic effect by amyloid-beta , ameliorated the cerebral metabolism and also increase the level of acetylcholine in the basal forebrain and hippocampus. It also has the antioxidant effect which is very helpful towards Alzheimer disease. Other beneficial impacts include reduction of the lipid peroxidation, prevention intracellular peroxide accumulation and reduce the degradation of the neurons in the brain. So, it is said that estrogens reduce the occurrence of Alzheimer disease of Down syndrome woman. Woman patients with Down syndrome may have an earlier occurrence or more serve form of Alzheimer disease when these women has early onset of menopause compared to those late menopause women (Schupf et al., 2006). But those post-menopause women that receive estrogen replacement therapy may have a lower occurrence in having Alzheimer disease. The Apolopoprotein E Gene Another factor that attribute to the late onset of Alzheimer disease is Apolopoprotein E (APOE) gene. This gene is located on chromosome 19 and has 3 types of alleles (Corder et al., 1993). The allele that is responsible for Alzheimer disease is APOE ÃŽÂ µ4 allele. It is found that patients with Alzheimer disease has higher frequencies of the APOE ÃŽÂ µ4 allele compared with those without other APOE genotypes and have a earlier onset of Alzheimer disease (Corder et al., 1993). Another allele that has good contribution towards Alzheimers disease for adults with Down syndrome is APOE ÃŽÂ µ2. It is the least common allele but can reduce the risk of Alzheimers disease for adults with Down syndrome (Schupf et al,1996). Cholesterol is transported by high-density lipoproteins such as APOE, and these suggested of the hypothesis that the relationship between APOE and risk of Alzheimers disease may be linked to cholesterol metabolism. Statins or HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors are currently the most widely prescribed class of cholesterol lowering medication. In a number of studies, it has been shown that the use of statin does reduced the risk of the Alzheimers disease. So, for participants with a total cholesterol level of 200 mg/dL or more, the effect of statin significantly lower the risk of dementia compared to that of other participants with lower total cholesterol (Green, Jayakumar, Benke, Farrer, 2002). The Sortilin-related receptor-1 Gene On chromosome 11 (11q24.1), there is this gene called sortilin-related receptor-1 gene (SORL1). It is a 250-kDa membrane protein that is expressed in the neurons of the nervous system. The SORL1 gene has the role of intracellular trafficking between membrane and hence, interacting with amyloid precursor protein (APP) in endosomes and golgi. This gene function to get rid the excess beta amyloid protein. So, when there is little expression of this gene, it will cause to the increase of beta amyloid protein hence it will lead to the accumulation of beta amyloid protein. Since there is already a large amount of beta amyloid protein in the brains of the Down syndrome patients, then it will have problem to decrease the amount of beta amyloid protein so it will increase the risk of having Alzheimer disease. (Rogaeva et al, 2007) The Phorsphorylation Phosphorylation is a mechanism that controls the activity of enzymes and receptors by switching on the regulation of the cell function. Constant activation of the phosphorylation mechanism will increase the accumulation of the of neurofibrillary tangles, abnormal twisted protein filaments that form within affected neurons and are composed mainly of hyperphosphorylated tau protein (Hardy et al, 1991). So, the hyperphosphorylated tau protein in the brain of the transgenic mice with extra human minbrain-kinase gene also give us the indication of the overexpression of minibrain-kinase could contribute to the early onset of Alzheimers disease associated with Down syndrome ( Wegiel et al, 2008). The Age There have been studies that suggest that overall dementia risk increases beginning in the late 40s or early 50s and even some twenty years earlier than it does within the general population. However, there is still some individuals vary on the onset age. A small minority of adults with Down syndrome begin to experience substantial declines in cognition before age 50, yet another minority is able to mature well into their late 60s or early 70s without experiencing signs or symptoms of Alzheimers disease (Schupf, 2002). There are studies on the different ages of mothers who give birth to their children to have risk of having dementia. The results showed a four-fold increase in risk of dementia among mothers who gave birth to their children with Down syndrome less than 35 years of age compared with mothers who were older than 35 years when their child with Down syndrome was born or compared with mothers of children with other intellectual disabilities (Schupf et al., 1994). The Biomarkers Biomarkers are used to monitor diseases progression so it is very useful in quantifying the effects of any available treatment regimen. Because biomarkers are strongly associated with disease risk, detection of early changes in biomarker levels provides an opportunity for early intervention to delay or prevent disease onset (Lesko Atkinson, 2001). To date, validated biomarkers for Alzheimers disease in adults with Down syndrome have yet to be discovered. However, there are some biomarkers that have been investigated. These include measures of the quantity and type of beta amyloid protein found in blood plasma and telomere size in metaphase and interphase preparations as well as on individual chromosomes (Schupf, Patel et al., 2001). There is a close relationship between Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease mainly cause by the overexpression of the APP gene and lead to the over production of the protein, amyloid-beta protein(1-40/42), the major contribution to Alzheimer disease pathogenesis in Down syndrome patient. It is reported in both cross-sectional and prospective analyses that beta-amyloid 1-42 levels increased in demented adults with Down syndrome but not beta amyloid 1-40 levels. For people who are nondemented but with high plasma beta-amyloid 1-42 levels were over two times as likely to develop Alzheimers disease as those with lower levels (Schupf, Patel et al., 2001). Telomeres are DNA sequences that located at the end of the chromosome which is a series of repeats of the TTAGGG nucleotide sequence. These DNA sequences undergo shortening with each cell division, serving as markers of a cells replicative history and an indicator of cellular aging. Using quantitative telomere protein nucleic acid fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) analyses of metaphase and interphase preparations from age matched pairs of participants with Down syndrome with and without dementia, there are four observations being observed. The first observation is there are shorter telomeres in individuals with dementia. Next, the individual chromosomes 1 and 21 could be used alone and/or in combination to detect telomere shortening. The third observation is that the cells from individuals with dementia or MCI had reduced numbers of telomere signals when analyzed using a PNA telomere probe, and lastly the shorter telomeres in individuals with MCI (Jenkins, Velinov, Ye, Gu, Li et al., 2006). The Conclusion In conclusion, Down syndrome showed that it has a relationship with the pathology of Alzheimer disease. Triplication of chromosome 21that causes over expression of the amyloid-beta protein is the major cause towards the pathology of Alzheimer disease. Not only so, some other sub factors also contribute to it. After understanding the various causes that resulted in Down syndrome patients to have Alzheimer disease, it will be easier for us to invent more ways to treat all these symptoms and hence it will definitely benefit a lot of people that are associated with these diseases.

Old And New Imperialism :: Imperialism History Essays

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There were two different time periods where Imperialism occurred. The first wave of imperialism, called the 'Old' Imperialism, lasted from around 1500 - 1800. The 'New' Imperialism lasted from around 1870 - 1914. The three main differences that we will discuss today are the differences in economics, politics, and the motive behind all of this.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The new and the old waves of imperialism were very much different through economics. The old economics was pretty much all about trading, they imply bought the wares brought to them by the native merchants. They didn?t have much of a money system; it was sort of a trade system. Also in old imperialism they had trade commerce on much of the coast in South America as well as Islands near Asia and England. So the wave of old imperialism was all about trading. However, the new imperialism had a different economic idea. They didn?t just want the goods of native merchants; they wanted special types of predicts. They would move into countries to get their products. Instead of having trade centers along coasts, they would set up plantations, docks, and factories in other countries. They also got as much money as they could out of people; it was all about getting money in the new imperialism unlike that of the old imperialism.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The new and old waves of imperialism also differed politically. In new imperialism, they wanted to dominate politically, they wanted their politics to dominate and rule everything. They wanted to dominate in order to secure their investments. Although in old imperialism the people didn?t care so much to have political power everywhere, they just wanted someone to rule them and keep trade going in the countries that they are living in.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The motive in the new wave of imperialism and in the old wave of imperialism had a great difference. Old imperialism?s motives was mainly about bringing civilization to other countries, and teach them how to live. They just wanted glory, gold, and they wanted the satisfaction of thinking they did something good in Gods eyes. But the new motive is completely different. In the new wave of imperialism they wanted to take over already largely populated areas.