Comparing Codes of Ethics Essays - 895 Words

Comparing Codes of Ethics The American Counseling Association and the American Mental Health Counselors Association Codes of Ethics both provide guidance and direction in making ethical decisions for their members (ACA, 2005) (AMHCA, 2010). Both the ACA and the AMHCA Codes of Ethics cover a wide range of moral and ethical situations that could present themselves to mental health professionals. Both of these codes of ethics have significant impacts on the counseling profession. The tools provided by these codes of ethics ensure that mental health professionals are able to conform to the regulations set forth. They address common concerns from varying points of view. Understanding these codes of ethics is essential to all mental†¦show more content†¦According to the AMHCA Code of Ethics, 2010, Section III.9, Commitment to Students, Supervisees and Employee Relationships, the primary obligation of supervisors is to monitor services provided by supervisees to ensure clien t welfare. (p. 16) According to the AMHCA Code of Ethics, 2010, Section I.A.1.a, â€Å"the primary responsibility of mental health counselors is to respect client dignity and promote client welfare.† (p.2) Both codes of ethics have parallel stances when it comes to acting ethically in the benefit of the client’s interest. Supervisory roles are crucial in the development of counselors and ensuring the welfare of clients. Code Violations and Counselor Record Keeping Even though there are many similarities between the ACA and the AMHCA Codes of Ethics, there are also some distinct differences. One fundamental difference is the process of code violations and the way they are addressed. A second prominent difference is in the way the codes address counselor’s record keeping. According to the ACA Code of Ethics, 2005, H.1.b, â€Å"Counselors assist in the process of enforcing the ACA Code of Ethics. Counselors cooperate with investigations, proceedings, and requirements of the ACA Ethics Committee or ethics committees of other duly constituted associations or boards having jurisdiction over those charged with a violation.†(p.19) According to the AMHCA Code ofShow MoreRelatedComparing Code of Ethics584 Words   |  3 PagesComparing Codes of Ethics Comparing Codes of Ethics The similarities between the ACA and the AMHCA code of ethics, they both providing training, guidance, and direction in making ethic decisions for their members (ACA, 2005) (AMHCA, 2010). The ACA and AMHCA codes of ethics cover a wide range of ethical and professional situations common to the practicing professional. An example of not having the correct training in multicultural counseling is in the case study of â€Å"Allison: The Case of theRead MoreEthics in Action1278 Words   |  6 PagesComparing and Contrasting the Code of Ethics Aquila Mahdi Counseling 501 Liberty University February 26, 2012 Dr. S. Sadik Abstract This paper will attempt to examine the code of ethics from the American Counseling Association (ACA) and the American Association of Christian Counselors (AACC). It will take a look at the differences and similarities shared between the two organizations, respectfully. It will examine confidentiality, dual roles and sexual intimacies. Comparing and ContrastingRead MoreSocial Work Ethics And Personal Ethics1489 Words   |  6 Pages Social Work Ethics vs Personal Ethics Shacoya Collins Indiana University 13 October 2017 John Fitzgerald Kennedy once said, â€Å"One person can make a difference but everyone should try† (John Fitzgerald Kennedy Quotes 2005). Everyone can be a change in someone else’s life, if they set aside their own beliefs to help someone else who may have different beliefs. Comparing my values to those of the social work code of ethics will show the converging and diverging between the two withRead MoreRequirement of Certification for Higher Education1115 Words   |  4 PagesMachinery (ACM) have issued a Code of Ethics. The ACM code is available at HYPERLINK http://www.acm.org/about/code-of-ethics http://www.acm.org/about/code-of-ethics. Review this code, and explain at least two overall advantages and two disadvantages or limitations that you see with this code. In identifying the advantages and disadvantages, try to think in terms of the code overall not specific parts of it. Professional organizations need to have a Code of Ethics to define the cornerstones ofRead MorePublic Relations Institute Of New Zealand Essay1495 Words   |  6 Pagesunderstand the reasoning of this elaborate definition it is best refined into three sections. This essay hereby endeavours to critically examine the PRiNZ definition of Public Relations against various models of both Public Relations communication and the ethics employed when exhibiting them. Examples from contemporary New Zealand will clarify critical assessment. The first part of the definition describes a â€Å"deliberate, planned and sustained effort†. This idea is best developed when looked at in termsRead MoreSocial Welfare Essay719 Words   |  3 PagesNASW and IFSW is that they have the same layout but a different format being that there are in two different areas of the world but still serve to the need of the people. NASW has four sections that consist of the Preamble, Purpose of the NASW Code of Ethics, Ethical Principles. Ethical Standards and the IFSW has five sections the Preface, Definition of Social Work, International Conventions, Principle, Social Justice, and Professional conduct. When taking a look at the NASW you see that it is theRead MoreAccounting Ethics Essay example619 Words   |  3 PagesThe Bible and Accounting Ethics The Bible and accounting have numerous similarities when it comes to ethics. First, let us take a look at the definition of ethics; â€Å"ethics are the beliefs that distinguish right from wrong. They are accepted standards of good and bad behavior† (Wild, p.8). Therefore when comparing the two we are able to distinguish certain verses in the bible, with the code of ethics in accounting that are recognized in the accounting industry or any industry at that. There areRead MoreThe Ethics And Integrity Of Two Research Articles1139 Words   |  5 Pageswill analyze the ethics and integrity of two research articles. The first article, Social Networking and Professional Ethics: Client Searches, Informed Consent, and Disclosure (Harris, Robinson Kurpius, 2014). The second article, Child Rights as a Framework for Advancing Professional Standards for Practice, Ethics, and Professional Development in School Psychology (Nastasi and Naser, 2014). The standards and key portions of the American Psychological Association (APA) Code of Ethics (2010) of eachRead MorePersonal Statement : Professional Identity808 Words   |  4 Pagesover step her professional boundaries towards a friend of a critical injured patient. In this article Holland used external references from P Muskin’s Clinical guide to Countertransference: Current Psychiatry article published in 2009 as a means of comparing the practical way of handling a person in a time of grie f compared to the unnamed Louisianan nurse who had over step many boundaries. Holland had conducted interviews and many colleagues of the nurse who said she had â€Å"acted in a completely unprofessionalRead MoreHuman Resources Management Principles For A Profitable Professional Service Organizations865 Words   |  4 Pagesproject management principles compared to operations management principles. Each of these management principles include different criteria, but play a vital role in running a successful business. I will also cover the importance of establishing a code of ethics for a profitable professional service organizations. Human resources management (HRM) and operations management (OM) have been thought as very separate fields. â€Å"The shift in the U.S. economy toward the service sector and away from manufacturing

Black Like Me Sociological Terms - 1088 Words

Lindsey Brown Final May 9, 2012 Black Like Me Black Like Me is a non-fiction book written by John Howard Griffin about what a black, middle-aged man has to go through every day in the Deep South. To find out what it is like to be a Negro, Griffin changes his skin color to that of a black. During his experiences, Griffin keeps a journal and that is what this book is. Black Like Me is a journal of Griffins feelings, experiences, pains, and friends. The setting of Black Like Me is intensely important. The setting starts out on October 28, 1959 in Mansfield, Texas. The setting in Black Like Me is so important because if the setting is any other place than the Southern United States then the plot is†¦show more content†¦He then goes off his medication entirely, permanently returning his skin color to white. He returns home to his family and writes his article, which is published in March 1960. After the article appears, Griffin is called on to do interviews with prominent television shows and newsmagazines. The story of his amazing experience quickly spreads around the world, and he receives a flood of congratulatory mail. In Mansfield, however, the prevalent attitude is that of racism, and Griffin and his family becomes the subject of hateful reprisals. An effigy of Griffin, painted half white and half black, is burned on Main Street, a cross is burned in a Negro schoolyard, threats are made against Griffin, including one to castrate him. By August, things are so bad that he has decided to move his family to Mexico. The reason I chose this book was because the title jumped up at me and my curiosity was aroused. I wanted to find out more about it. I was also drawn to the fact that the book was based on a true story. True stories interest me a lot and I instantly knew that I wanted to read this book. I also noticed that the book was a best seller and sold thousands of copies. As I read this book I’m glad that I choose it because it broadened my perspective on racism and the lengths that an individual is willing to go to in order to personally experience or understand a situation. This book has clearlyShow MoreRelatedThe Sociological Imagination, By C. Write Mills1409 Words   |  6 PagesWhen C. Write Mills talks about the sociological imagination, he is saying that it is the capacity to understand that individual life is complexly intertwined with events and issues present in the world. Sociological imagination can range from subjects as simple and everyday as hygiene, to something more serious such as racism. In terms of hygiene, there has been a rise in amounts of desire for state of the art hand sanitizers in schools, resulting from the Swine Flu epidemic of 2009. Similarly,Read MoreMy Sociological Imagination Started Influencing Me A Lot1266 Words   |  6 PagesThe term â€Å"Sociological Imagination† can be defined in various contexts and in different ways depending on the situation and surroundings. According to most researchers, the definition of the term varies from case to case. Due to different scenarios and observations, most researchers have failed to apply a single definition of the term. However, after studying a number of cases, there is a general definition that we can associate to this term, i.e. the interaction of one’s mind and its experiencesRead MoreSociological Imagination By C.wright Mills1623 Words   |  7 Pagescontinually to examine it and interpret it. (Mills, 1959, p. 216) Sociological imagination by C.Wright Mills can be defined as addressing social problems by relating the individuals personal trouble with the way society is organized and structured† (Tepperman Albanese, 2014,p. 2). Sociological imagination is the ability to see things socially and how they interact and influence our daily lives and each other. To have a sociological imagination, we need to be able to pull ourselves away from the situationRead MoreI Am Applying Intersectionality And The Sociological Imagination1080 Words   |  5 Pagesintersectionality and the sociological imagination to my intersecting identities: class, gender, and ethnicity. By employing intersectionality and the sociological imagination, I am analyzing how my positionality affected my personal experiences while connecting those events with society. I also included five peer-reviewed articles as supporting evidence. Kimberlà © Williams Crenshaw is an African American scholar, civil rights advocate, and law professor who developed the term intersectionality (Merriam-WebsterRead MoreThe Sociological Perspective On Medical Conditions1687 Words   |  7 Pageslimited to using an individual’s body and pathogens to explain poor health. On a different note, the sociological perspective takes on a different approach to explain medical conditions. The sociological perspective focuses on the external influences, rather than then internal influences, such as the social environment, institutions, and relationships to assess and explain illness. The sociological perspective contains the following theories to support its assessment of illness and they are: stigmaRead MoreSociology in Everyday Life Essay911 Words   |  4 Pagessocial life. Everyday life and sociology are definitely two distinct terms and situations, but they hold a close relationship. While sociology studies human interaction, every day life consists of everyday human interaction. Everyday life is filled by human beings interacting with one another, institutions, ideas, and emotions. Sociology studies the interactions with all of these and shows how mere interaction resulted in things like ideas and institutions.    Everyday that you wake up andRead MoreIs The American Dream True?1690 Words   |  7 Pagesdidn’t have the chances I did because of the unfair role the society takes on class, race, and gender. Just from taking this class, Sociological Imagination, for a few weeks now has opened my mind up to a bunch of questions but mainly, why? Why society have to be the way it is? We are all humans and nothing is different other than race, gender, and social status. Sociological Imagination is the quality of mind, the way of thinking that sees the impact of social forces and social content on an individual’sRead MoreRace And Ethnicity Are Affected By Stratification938 Words   |  4 PagesMany people including me before I took this class thought they were the same thing. Racial groups are a group that is socially set apart because of obvious physical differences. An example of this is I come from Somalia but in the United States my race would be defined as black or African American. Ethnicity or ethnic groups are groups set apart from others because of its national origin or distinctive cultural patterns. An example of this is although my race is defined as black or African AmericanRead MoreThe Sociological Imagination Essay838 Words   |  4 PagesThe Sociological Imagination The human attitudes have always been a curiosity that captivated most of the great social theorists like Karl Marx, Engels and Durkheim. One of the most unhumble attitude of the humanity was Racism and stereotyping. The racial issue even in the 21st century continue to be a subject that still is present and significant even though we tend to say that racism and other forms of discrimination are prohibited by law and illegal still even in the US theRead MoreYour Blues Aint Like Mine Essay1450 Words   |  6 PagesIn Bebe Moore Campbell’s, You’re Blues Ain’t Like Mine, I was able to view the novel from the three main sociological perspectives: the structural-functionalist approach, the social-conflict approach, and the symbolic-interaction approach. From the structural-functionalist point of view, I analyzed the Honorable Men of Hopewell as the power elite. I viewed Mamie Cox’s understanding of social class from the social-conflict perspective, and Doreen and Lily Cox differences were easily seen through

Gated Communities in Istanbul Free Essays

The background Istanbul is one of the outstanding concern, Cultural, tourer and transit hubs in Europe every bit good as the Middle East which besides contributes 22 per cent of Turkey’s GDP with 17.8 per cent of the national population. ( 21 ) The economic activity is rooted geographically and historically as the instance with many planetary metropoliss. We will write a custom essay sample on Gated Communities in Istanbul or any similar topic only for you Order Now From the Ottoman period, Istanbul has been the major metropolis in term of societal moral force and economic activity. In The wake of the Second World War, the industrial capital throughout the patriot and develop mentalist clip with experiment of big inward migration. The rapid enlargement is chiefly through spreading outwardsgecekonducolonies near the mill on the traveling borders of Istanbul which displaced the manifestation of the aureate age of informal urbanisation. Whereas, with the debut of the Neoliberal scheme which started from the 1980s, it has entered into a new phase that the shot of nation’s integrating into supranational capitalist kineticss is focused on Istanbul. ( book ) At that period of clip, the luxury upper category residential country and globalising commercial infinites spread outwards of the metropolis ; Meanwhile,gecekonducolonies have continued to turn. Thus, the great disparity of income, wealth and power deepen in Istanbul as the city expressed i n spacial segregations ( book ; keyder2005 ) It could reason that planetary capitalist economy is the beginning of centralisation and backdown for the form of growing. In the recent decennaries, Istanbul has been considered by Turkish capital and province as a supranational regional economic Centre, assisting Turkey to take a farther measure into internationalisation and planetary capitalist economy as the fiscal hub for the East and the West. ( ppt ) To implement the acceleration, the Istanbul Metropolitan Planning ( IMP ) was established by the JDP authorities. There are two indispensable purposes for the planning authorization ; the first is to deconcentrate the fabrication industry towards outskirts of the built-up country. The 2nd is to transform the cardinal metropolis towards finance services, up-market ingestion, so traveling the growing of up-market utilizations from the outskirts to the Centre. ( book ) These transmutation besides led of import functional alterations in the cardinal metropolis like Emine °S ? Which was the city’s oldest concern centre now lost its production and service maps but act as great touristic and cultural roles.17 The chief intervention for the spacial restructuring is through large-scale urban renovation which including the three big havens at Zeytinburnu, Haydarpasa and Galata are for trade centre. Meanwhile, the new bomber centre is located in the outer of both sides of the metropolis to suit the lower degree and more local commercial activity to guarantee the cardinal metropolis to be available for high degree concern sectors. The internationalized utilizations for renovation of cardinal metropolis proceed partially on empty land in the cardinal metropolis which owned by the public authorization. At the same clip, the IMP has seen a ‘rent gap’ in rundown residential countries with hapless dwellers so in the interior metropolis, these countries are targeted as major planned regeneration undertakings. First, be aftering in the country where the historic edifices in metropolis centre that occupied by the cultural minority of all categories who were expelled in the 1920s from the state by the nationalist government. Second, be aftering in the country where thegecekonducolonies built by immigrants in the past 50 old ages which means they are composed to travel out. Before, these dwellers who work in these countries are largely employed in informal service sectors and small-scale economic improvisation in the cardinal metropolis. Even more worse, because of the planetary crisis the unskilled occupat ions are difficult to happen for support, the impairment of poorness happens with the cultural and societal background of recent migrators like Kurdish migrators, the Roma population of Sulukule, African refugees. Therefore, without rubric to the land, these people are unable to take part in the increasing market-oriented lodging economic system. ( rhenium ) The menace is non merely for the income polarisationa?† a?- but besides it affected societal, cultural, and spacial exclusion and possibly a lasting sub-proletariat. ( Re ) For illustration, in recent regeneration undertaking in the Sulukule territory which is one of the oldest Roma vicinities been occupied by Anatolian Gypsies since Byzantine times will replace the edifice with Ottoman manner Villa. It is the MHA led undertaking that propose a 100 edifice are to be demolished with all 620 the renters are evicted. The two options is either to purchase new flat at a high monetary value or purchase societal lodging units in the outskirts of the metropolis at below- market rates but it is 45km off, therefore it become truly dearly-won and hard to entree to employment in the metropolis centre. The other similar regeneration projectikucukcekmece, to bring forth tremendous residential developments which close to a new planned commercial growing country in the outer West of the Istanbul. The MHA has constructed a immense increased denseness of 100,000 lodging unites with ingestion infinite. ( book ) However, the MHA demolished old 2000 homesteader colonies which move the proprietors to societal lodging in less valuable countries. The poorest tenants were neglect when they couldn’t pay the monetary value for the provided units. ? ? ? Thegecekonducolonies are consolidated. The Mass Housing Administration participated in this development by concept high-rise residential units for low income groups in outskirts of the metropolis and some of the Original occupants could go forth the old vicinity and take for middle-class residential developments. Alliances happened for the last 15 old ages and profited from the development. As a consequence, the metropolis could stop up with an tremendous bubble of extra existent estate ( 49 ) ? ? ? ? ? In Istanbul there are more than half illegally edifices where big population growing was accommodated on these productions of colonies. For the terminal of populism it demonstrated that land had eventually become a commodityiREi?†°which of course become favourable for guess as more and more land was pulled into the market sphere. However, the planetary moving ridge of bad investing in these tremendous developments make up one’s minding the spacial enlargement of the urban metropolis. ( 49 ) In the 1980s, the earlier stage of the planetary vision was chiefly driven by the Turkish beginning pudding stone capital. The new unit of ammunition of urban globalisation is non merely driven by existent estate but besides a cultural undertaking. However, it could still reason that the renovation docket to turn metropolis infinites into the profitable Assets ; meanwhile, to accommodate the demands of spread outing wealth or for touristry, for commercial utilizations. ( 49 ) The planetary Investors are attracted to the quickly increased consumer demand for high-quality lodging, commercial apace and cultural touristry in the most profitable country. ? ? ? ? As a consequence, It can be seen in a 5.5 km2 big renovation undertaking, maestro planned by Zaha Hadid, in the Kartal territory along the Marmara shore which hosts 100 industrial mill. The former Mayor of Kartal had indicated the program to pull US $ 5 billion from planetary investors to develop a yacht marina accommodating 1,000 boats with Hotels, place and residential country. These sort of transmutation rely on the confederation of national and local political purpose and economic involvements, moreover it is besides depended on the graduated table and range with planetary capital entered the metropolis. ( 49 ) The comparative economic alteration is the world that modern urban developments have homogenized edifice signifiers. The standardisation has progressed because of the edifice can be globally traded which are every bit the same in all topographic points. The societal effects of standardisation is the consequence of homogeneousness in reinforced signifier affects segregation it is efficient to build full communities destined for certain societal groups. 12 Gated communities appeared in Turkey in the 1980s as of import undertaking of urban transmutation and enlargement in the metropolis which driven by an progressively powerful existent estate market and accepted by political relations and planning. This advancement is non merely altering urban and architectural forms in the metropolis but besides the deduction on the societal and economic constructions at the vicinity degree. ( web ) For illustration Ge °Ã¢â‚¬ ¡te »Ã‚ µk, as a innovator of this manner of development in the 1990s existent estate developers discovered the potency for the up market lodging development. Therefore, more than 30 gated communities have been built closly. As a consequence, the population increases from 1,500 in 1993 to about 20,000 in 2008 with increasing land value. ( ) The country has been transformed into an island among islands with necessary web of economic, societal brushs which connect Ge °Ã¢â‚¬ ¡te »Ã‚ µk’s apparently the fragment into an incorporate economic whole.i5i?†°However, the gated communities still consequence on crystallisation of the class-based spacial segregation. Istanbul is acknowledged that has a proper system of public conveyance constitutes to counter the immense menace to mobility by planned expresswaies, widened roads and introduced new traffic lanes. However, it could make farther divisions and destruct the city’s delicate vicinity construction. The original street forms of theGecekonduand yap-sat territories, with their complex societal and micro-economic constructions, and lively street activities are being replaced by the new vicinities which dwelling of monolithic blocks with high-rise flat towers. Besides, a big Numberss of diverse population are forced to go considerable distances for plants and even basic demands that farther consequence on the mobility on all degrees. How to cite Gated Communities in Istanbul, Essay examples

Business and Company Law

Questions: (a). Advise the directors whether they are liable for breaching the insolvent trading provisions of the Corporations Act 2001. Also advise whether they have any defences available to them if they have in fact breach the insolvent trading provisions. (2). Advise the directors and other officers whether they have any liability for signing off on the 2015 financial accounts. (3). Advise what is the liability of Mr Smith for his actions leading up to the voluntary administration of XYZ Co Ltd? Explain what law might apply to Mr Smith and whether he has breached any duties owed to the company committed any offences. Answers: (a): Mr. Smith is a retired director of the company named XYZ CO Ltd. He was not appointed as a director for the present year, 2014, however, he continued to attend many of the business matters within the company and is regularly part of the business meetings to advise and mentor the new directors. In return, Mr. Smith receives a consultancy fee for his work and the new directors generally follow the advice of Mr. Smith in the way in which they should run a company. The company was recently audited and the auditors and directors of the company with the recommendation of the companys CFO, Brian, signed off the financial accounts in the year 2015 as true and correct. However, at the end of the year 2015, it was found that the company was unable to pay its debts and the company was held insolvent for the year 2015. Based on the facts, the issue that arises here is whether; the directors are liable for breaching the insolvent trading provisions of the Corporations Act, 2001. A company is considered as a separate legal entity and it has the same rights and powers like that of any other normal person. This means that a company can borrow, enter into contracts and sell or buy its assets[1]. Every company has a director and the directors of the company should remember that the company owns their property, the company is responsible for paying their debts and the money that is invested by the company is for the repayment of their shares. Hence, it may concluded that a company is a separate legal entity[2]. Sometimes it may so happen, that directors are not formally appointed however, they continue to act as directors this is called shadow directors. In this case, Mr. Smith is considered as shadow director. He also discharged most of the duties as the director of the XYZ Company. Shadow directors can be held liable for breaches of the laws relating to the duties of the director, even though they were never appointed as a director of the company[3]. The first s cenario invokes the provision relating to insolvent trading. Insolvent trading is when the directors allow their company to earn debts when the company had become insolvent. The liquidators can hold the directors liable for payment of the debts against the directors of the company the moment liquidation begins. A director may he held personally liable for the payment of the debts at the time when the company became insolvent. A company may be declared as insolvent when it cannot pay its debts. According to section 95 A of the Corporations Act, insolvency means a person who is unable to pay their debts the moment it becomes payable and due. Section 588A of the Corporations Act, 2001, deals with, how directors can be held liable for insolvent trading. According to section 588A, it is the duty of the director to prevent insolvent trading within the company[4]. A director can be held liable for contravening this section when the directors knowingly allow the company to incur the debt wh en they were aware of the fact that the company was insolvent. Hence, in the given case scenario if we apply section 588A of the Corporations Act, the directors of XYZ Company can be held liable for breaching the provisions relating to insolvent trading. The directors also signed off the financial reports without proper assessment and made a declaration that there is no scope that the company was insolvent. The defences that may available to the directors in this case as per the Corporations Act are as follows: The directors had all grounds to believe that the company was solvent. In this case, the directors may use this defence, as the CFO audited the company and made a financial report stating that all the records of the company are fine[5]. A competent, reasonable person produced all information that made the directors belief that the company was solvent[6]. The director had a good reason for not taking part in the management of the company at that particular time. The director took all the reasonable steps to prevent the company from earning debt; this includes attempting to appoint a voluntary administrator for the company that had become insolvent[7]. (b): Following the facts that is stated in answer a, it was noted that XYZ Company was recently audited and the directors after proper recommendation of Brian had signed off the financial accounts declaring it as true and correct. As per the Australian Company Law, it is the responsibility of the company to file and lodge financial reports with the ASIC and the reports should contain a column wherein the declaration can be made from the director. This is particularly in regard with the financial report of the company. The declaration that is made by the directors includes: That, in the opinion of the directors, the company shall have all means to pay off their debts as and when they become due on the company[8]. That, the statements that are made by the company comply with the general accounting standards and performance of the company. If the company is listed then the directors of the company have to make a declaration that is to be provided by the Chief Executive Officer (CEO) and Chief Executive Officer (CFO)[9]. It is the duty of the director to ensure that each of them have proper duty, skill and diligence in understanding the financial report that will be disclosed to the public. It is the duty of the director to ensure that each of the clause contained in the report are fair, true and correct as to the knowledge of the director[10]. The director has the duty to ensure that the financial report that is issued is fair, and reasonable and correct. Section 314 of the Corporations Act, 2001 a company must report to all the members of the company at the end of the financial year, which shall be made in accordance with sections 1AA or, 1AE of the Corporations Act, 200[11]1. According to section 314 of the Act, a company has to produce a director report, auditor report or financial report at the end of the year. The role of the audit committee plays a very important role in making sure that the audit quality or financial report of the company is fair and correct. However, the establishment of the audit committee does not affect the responsibility of the director in ensuring that the report was correct and fair. The director have the responsibility in ensuring that the CFO and the CEO of the company are qualified enough to have established roles while issuing the financial reports of the company[12]. The directors also have to ensure that the financial reports comply with the records of the company and comply with the basic accounting standards. Hence, it is expected that directors have the basic knowledge of the accounting standards and principles. If a company is a listed company then the declarations that are made by the CFO and CEO should comply with the financial accounting standards of the company. The directors of the company are considered as important watchdogs of the company it is believed that they have sufficient knowledge about the accounting principles and standards of the company. The directors of the company should be educated, they should be updated about th e accounting principles and standards, and that the financial reports have met the requirements of the Corporations Act[13]. In this case, the CFO is considered as the main head of the financial industry, he is expected to have expertise in the field of financial industry and hence it is a general belief that he has the best knowledge of the companys financial details. In this case, it was expected from Brian to understand when the company was going to become insolvent and at the right time, he should have informed the directors about it. Hence, it was the responsibility of the director and the CFO to ensure and make proper financial report of the company. The directors and the CFO of the company should have ensured that the financial reports are correct before signing off on the 2015 financial accounts. (c): It was noted that at the end of the financial year, the company was not able to pay a number of their debts and that Mr Smith on behalf of the company, negotiates with the creditors for an extension of time to pay back what the company owes. However, in the beginning of the year 2016 the company declared voluntary administration. It was discovered by the external administrators of the company, that the company has sold some of their very valuable property to Mr Smith below the market price before his retirement as a director. Based on the facts, the issue that arises here is the liability of Mr Smith and his actions that has led to the voluntary administration of XYZ Co Ltd. A voluntary administration is, when the company is assisted with the help of a qualified administrator, to improve the financial position of the company and to get the company back on its feet. The voluntary administration happens with the help of the creditors. If the voluntary administration is linked with the action of Mr. Smith that happened even before his retirement then he should be held liable for buying the assets of the company for a lesser price. Mr Smith can be held liable for breaching sections 180 to 183 of the Corporation Act, 2001. This section contains the general duty of the director[14]. According to section 180 of the Corporation Act, 2001 a director should exercise their power and discharge their duties using diligence and care. The directors of the company should act in good faith and should ensure that none of their acts affects the company in a way that causes their downfall. According to section 181 of the Corporations Act, 2001, the directors of the company should exercise their rights and powers that act in best interests of the company and for a good purpose[15]. The directors under no circumstances misuse the power that is endowed on them. The directors are restricted from misusing their powers in such a way that is helps them in taking advantage of their position and use them for their personal benefit. According to section 183 of the Act, a director should not act in a way that causes detriment to the company and to the other members of the company. The final two sections deal with the civil obligation of the directors. If the Court determines that the act of the director has violated the civil liability then the Court may order civil penalty to the directors. In the same way, if after due determination it is seen that the directors violated their duty that amounted to criminal breach then the court may pass an order of criminal action against the director. The Court may pass an order for a criminal action against the director if the director recklessly failed to discharge his duties as a director[16]. This means the capacity of the Directors in infringing a given power is determined with the extent of the breach committed. In the given case scenario, Mr Smith can be held liable for breach of his duty as a director because he bought the property of the company at a lower price than the market price and he used the property of the company for his personal gain or advantage. Hence, Mr. Smith can he held liable for breach of his duty as a director. References: Bromley, Macaire. "Special report on the Productivity Commission's review of restructuring practices in Australia."Governance Directions67.8 (2015): 471. Frankel, Susy, and Megan Richardson. "Limits of Free Trade Agreements: The New Zealand/Australia Experience."Intellectual Property and Free Trade Agreements in the Asia-Pacific Region. Springer Berlin Heidelberg, 2015. 315-333. Godwin, Andrew. "Teaching Transactional Law-A Case Study from Australia with Reference to the US Experience."Transactions: Tenn. J. Bus. L.16 (2014): 343. Gray, Anthony. "Development of good faith in Canada, Australia and Great Britain."Canadian Business Law Journal57.1 (2015): 84-119. Hanrahan, Pamela F., Ian Ramsay, and Geofrey P. Stapledon. "Commercial applications of company law."COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS OF COMPANY LAW, CCH Australia Ltd,(2013). Krever, Richard, and Peter Mellor. "Legal Interpretation of Tax Law: Australia."Legal Interpretation of Tax Law (Amsterdam: Kluwer, 2014)(2014): 15-45. Krever, Richard, and Peter Mellor. "Legal Interpretation of Tax Law: Australia."Legal Interpretation of Tax Law (Amsterdam: Kluwer, 2014)(2014): 15-45. Marginson, Simon. "Is Australia overdependent on international students?."International Higher Education54 (2015). Miller, Roger.Business Law Today, Standard: Text Summarized Cases. Nelson Education, 2015. Morrison, David, and Colin Anderson. "Is corporate rescue a realistic ideal? Business as usual in Australia and the United Kingdom."Nottingham Insolvency and Business Law e-Journal2015.3 (2015): 417-435. Semple, Noel, Russell G. Pearce, and Renee Newman Knake. "A Taxonomy of Lawyer Regulation: How Contrasting Theories of Regulation Explain the Divergent Regulatory Regimes in Australia, England and Wales, and North America."Legal Ethics16.2 (2013): 258-283. Stubbs, Wendy. "Investigation of emerging sustainable business models: the case of B Corps in Australia."Available at SSRN 2464758(2014). Taylor, Madeline. "Wrestling with giants-a critical account of supermarket power and competition laws in Australia and United Kingdom."Australian Business Law Review(2013). Welsh, Michelle. "Realising the public potential of corporate law: Twenty years of civil penalty enforcement in Australia."Fed. L. Rev.42 (2014): 217. Wood, Azmi, and Jo-Anne Weinman. "Does law constitute identity? Indigenous allegiance and identity in Australia."Allegiance and Identity in a Globalised World(2014). Zeller, Bruno, and Bill Cole. "Australian Trade AgreementsA Divergence between Trade Policy and Business OutcomesCan They Deliver Trade-related Growth for Australia?."Global Journal of Comparative Law3.2 (2014): 236-255. [1] Miller, Roger.Business Law Today, Standard: Text Summarized Cases. Nelson Education, 2015. [2] Marginson, Simon. "Is Australia overdependent on international students?."International Higher Education54 (2015). [3] Marginson, Simon. "Is Australia overdependent on international students?."International Higher Education54 (2015). [4] Miller, Roger.Business Law Today, Standard: Text Summarized Cases. Nelson Education, 2015. [5] Marginson, Simon. "Is Australia overdependent on international students?."International Higher Education54 (2015). [6] Godwin, Andrew. "Teaching Transactional Law-A Case Study from Australia with Reference to the US Experience."Transactions: Tenn. J. Bus. L.16 (2014): 343. [7] Miller, Roger.Business Law Today, Standard: Text Summarized Cases. Nelson Education, 2015. [8] Krever, Richard, and Peter Mellor. "Legal Interpretation of Tax Law: Australia."Legal Interpretation of Tax Law (Amsterdam: Kluwer, 2014)(2014): 15-45. [9] Krever, Richard, and Peter Mellor. "Legal Interpretation of Tax Law: Australia."Legal Interpretation of Tax Law (Amsterdam: Kluwer, 2014)(2014): 15-45. [10] Miller, Roger.Business Law Today, Standard: Text Summarized Cases. Nelson Education, 2015. [11] Godwin, Andrew. "Teaching Transactional Law-A Case Study from Australia with Reference to the US Experience."Transactions: Tenn. J. Bus. L.16 (2014): 343. [12] Krever, Richard, and Peter Mellor. "Legal Interpretation of Tax Law: Australia."Legal Interpretation of Tax Law (Amsterdam: Kluwer, 2014)(2014): 15-45. [13] Miller, Roger.Business Law Today, Standard: Text Summarized Cases. Nelson Education, 2015. [14] Miller, Roger.Business Law Today, Standard: Text Summarized Cases. Nelson Education, 2015. [15] Godwin, Andrew. "Teaching Transactional Law-A Case Study from Australia with Reference to the US Experience."Transactions: Tenn. J. Bus. L.16 (2014): 343. [16] Miller, Roger.Business Law Today, Standard: Text Summarized Cases. Nelson Education, 2015.

History Of Music Essays (2369 words) - Harmony, Chants,

History of Music History of Music It can be argued that the vanguard of development has always been reflected in the arts of a culture. It is the poets, the dreamers and artists who are the architects of the future; the ones who ?build the world they want to live in, the ones who dream out loud'1. Music is an elaborate art form, tempered by the emotions of those who create it and as such the dreams, creations and inventions are partly the products - or at least artifacts - of the world around them. As such, the social, economic and technological changes in society reflect themselves in the arts of the time also. The common question "Does art imitate life, or does life imitate art?" when inspected proves rhetorical: they are parallel mirrors which reflect each other. W.H. Auden best expressed this when he said, "A verbal art like poetry is reflective; it stops to think. Music is immediate, it goes on to become." Tracing the course of musical development through history shows how closely music (of all the art forms) in particular represents the time in which it was written. The "immediacy" Auden speaks of is evidenced in music's ability to associate itself with a specific point in time or event and always remind the listener of that time or place. It is impossible to analyse individual interpretation of music, however it is interesting to examine what caused musicians to write what they did, when they did. The personal interpretation or association of a work is superimposed; it is the music "going on to become." By correlating musical developments with historical events or conditions, we can see not only why certain styles of music were written when they were, but also how the times dictated the styles as much as the styles dictated the times. The exact origin of music is unknown. We can only form educated guesses from the evidence that remains today: pictures on fragments on broken vases of musical instruments, or cave paintings of dancing figures. It is generally accepted that music was first used in prehistoric times in spiritual or magical rituals. This knowledge comes from the fact that music still forms a vital part of most religious ceremonies today. Whereas with ancient pictures, we can imagine missing pieces, or envision brighter colours, when it comes to music we have no idea of what instruments were used, or the sounds they made. Our relationship with the music of the time is as intangible to us as if we had only smelled the dyes of the paintings we see. Greek music is just about the first artifact, chronologically speaking, of record which can begin to make sense to us. Although there is evidence that music and music performance played a large part in Greek culture in the manuscripts discovered from their civilisation, there are very few actual artifacts of the music itself, either vocal or instrumental that have survived. It is impossible to fully understand what little notation that has been discovered to properly reproduce an accurate performance or even imagine what it could sound like. Greek civilisation was heavily reliant on mythology. According to Greek mythology, music was considered divine; a creation of the gods. It was believed that the gods themselves invented music and musical instruments. Music and religion (mythology) played an integral part in both the public and private lives of the Greeks. Many early myths were those which explained the powerful forces of music. The Greek were perhaps the first to iterate music's powerful effect on human emotions. In Greek history, music was a much debated topic. Philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle both had very different views on the power and importance it had. Pythagoras developed the numerical octave system still used to represent music today. This was critical in helping us to understand today what we find in artifacts of the past. Entertainment in Greece was highly regarded and prioritised, as it represented wealth and status. The Greeks developed most of their music in theatre and by the time Greece became a province of the Roman Empire, music dominated most dramatic performances as well as social activities. We have far better evidence and examples of the music played in the society of the Roman Empire. Most of the music created in the Roman Empire originated in the music of the Greeks. Despite this, there was definite musical activity in the later Roman Empire. An ample amount of evidence survived for instruments and a good deal of theory also. But by and large, Greek music remained the most popular in society in

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Marketing Strategies Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Marketing Strategies - Research Paper Example When the companies take the decision for expanding and diversifying their businesses across the national boundaries, it is important for them to take into consideration various factors that are important for the successful operation of the company on the international scale (Keegan and Green 2008). The focus is to formulate a strategy regarding the international operations of Algerian wine in the UK market. Algerian Wine is a wine that is made from a country of North Africa in Algeria and is among the renowned name in the history of wine. Algeria is known to be one of the oldest producers of wine in the world. For the Romans, Algeria is considered to be the breadbasket and vineyard throughout the history of viticulture starting from the Roman Empire. Algerian wines have been seen to prosper the world with constant prosperity because of the fact that they have their own unique characteristics. Algerian wines are produced in five major regions that include The MEDEA region, The ZACCCAR region, The DAHRA region, The MASCARA region, and The TLEMCEN region. The aim of the company is to export the Algerian Wine called Coteaux De Mascara from Algeria into the market of UK. Coteaux De Mascara is termed to be the red wine from the Atlas Mountains. This wine belongs to The MASCARA region. This region has been well renowned in terms of producing wines with distinguished features. The wines produced in this region are considered to be robust and well structured. They are of good colour, and consist of high level of alcohol up-to 14 percent. All the wines of Algeria are distinguished with taste of deep berry flavours and the fragrance of roses and raspberries. For the purpose of data collection, various scholarly journals and articles will be selected, which will help in retrieving adequate information in relation to the international marketing. Secondary data will be helpful in collection of adequate and authentic information.

Dutch poltical issues Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

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Role Of Chromosome 21 In Alzheimers Disease Biology Essay

Role Of Chromosome 21 In Alzheimers Disease Biology Essay Down syndrome is a genetic disease that caused by trisomy of Human chromosome 21. Down syndrome is common chromosomal disorder of mental retardation in humans. It is caused by the three types of chromosomal abnormalities namely, free trisomy 21, translocation Down syndrome and mosaic Down syndrome. Most of the Down syndrome individuals experience Alzheimer-like neuropathology like dementia, neurofibrillary tangles and many others. Genes that are in Chromosome 21 which includes SOD-1, DSCR1, APP gene and S100B, are highly involved in the relationship between Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease. Besides the genes involved, other factors like oxidative stress and hormone will be discussed in this review too. There are two different types of hypotheses associated with Down syndrome namely, developmental instability and gene-dosage effect. Introduction Down syndrome is a common chromosomal disorder of mental retardation in humans. It is caused by the trisomy of chromosome 21. Down syndrome is named after John Laugdon Down in 1866.There is three different types of chromosomal abnormalities namely, free trisomy 21, translocation Down syndrome and mosaic Down syndrome. Over 90% of the time, non disjunction and failure to separate the chromosome pairs during meiosis are the principal cause of Down syndrome. Down syndrome is named after John Laugdon Down in 1866. The first person that published the relationship between Alzheimers disease-type neuropathology to clinical dementia in adults with Down syndrome was Jervis in 1948 and the person to demonstrate this disorder is due to the trisomy of chromosome 21 was by Jerome Lejeune in 1959. The symptoms associated with Down syndrome are diminished muscle tone, congenital heart disease, small skull, slanting eyes and retarded growth and development. Individuals with Down syndrome usually hav e the tendency of developing neuropathological changes like Alzheimer disease. Down syndrome has an overall incidence of 1 in 1000 live births when the mother aged 30, increasing 9 in 1000 births when the mother is aged 40 (Hook et al., 1983). Alzheimer disease is a neurodegenerative disease which maybe is found in Down syndrome individuals. This disease is named after a neuropathologist, Alois Alzheimer in 1906. Down syndrome individuals experience the Alzheimer-like neuropathology by their mid-40s. In the beginning, Alzheimer disease affects parts of brain like memory and languages. But after a period of time, this disease will progress and cause problems in all aspects of our life. Alzheimer disease has 2 forms, familial and sporadic forms. Familial Alzheimer disease is a rare disease which is genetically acquired. There are mainly 3 types of lesions that are observed in Alzheimer disease. It is then caused by the mutations in several genes like APP which will lead to the over production of the amyloid-beta protein. The most common form of Alzheimer disease is sporadic form which contributes to 90% of Alzheimer disease cases. The first type is the neuritic plaques, extracellular deposits of fibrillar beta amyloid surrou nded by degenerating neuronal processes and terminals. The next type of lesions is intraneuronal neurofibrillary tangles, primarily composed of abnormally hyperphospholated tau protein and lastly, it is vascular beta-amyloidosis associated with fibrillar amyloid deposition within the vascular wall. Over time, these pathological processes contribute to synaptic and neuronal loss, deterioration of neuronal networks, brain atrophy and dementia (Victor Ropper, 2001). Nowadays, people have longer life span and hence the Alzherimer disease become much more worrying for us as it will become a major public concern. There were 26.6 million of people that are suffering of the Alzheimer disease in 2006 and this number will continue to grow. It is then estimated to affect 1 in 85 people worldwide by the year of 2050. In fact, it was not until 1985 that research explicitly focused on aging related changes in health status and cognition of adults with intellectual disabilities, and in particular those with Down syndrome, began in earnest (Janicki et al, 1985). In Down syndrome, there are two different types of hypotheses associated namely, developmental instability and gene-dosage effect. The developmental instability hypothesis indicated that the correct balance of gene expression in the development is being disrupted. But this hypothesis is being questioned since other autosomal trisomy syndromes do not lead to the same clinical pattern (Shapiro et al,2001). In another case, the gene-dosage effect hypothesis, specific gene that is over expressed is responsible for the Down syndrome phenotypic abnormalities which indicated is trisomy of the Chromosome 21 (Delabar et al,1993). The Genes In chromosome 21, the most critical part that affects Down syndrome phenotype is the long arm(q) of chromosome 21. The critical region in chromosome 21 that is important to Alzheimer disease are amyloid precursor protein (APP) located at Chromosome 21q21.3 , superoxide dismutase gene (SOD-1) located at Chromosome 21q22.11, Beta-site APP-cleaving 2 enzyme (BACE2) located at Chromosome 21q22.3, carbonyl reductase (CBR) located at Chromosome 21q22.1 and cystathionine beta-synthase (CBS) located at Chromosome 21q22.3 . The critical region in chromosome 21 that is important to Down syndrome are glycinamide formyl transferase (GART) located at Chromosome 21q22.1, SOD-1, Cu2+/Zn2+ superoxide dismutase, beta subunit of S100 calcium-binding protein (S100B) located at Chromosome 21q22.3, Down syndrome critical region gene 1 (DSCR1) located at 21q22.3 and Intersectin 1 (ITSN1). The Amyloid precursor protein (APP) APP gene is located on human chromosome 21 and codes for a transmembrane protein that is expressed in both neurons and astrocytes. This gene is important in the relationship between Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease. Overexpression of APP gene will lead to the increase production of amyloid-beta protein which is the main protein component of senile plaque. The cause of the familial Alzheimer disease is by the mutation n the APP gene. The amyloid-beta protein is formed by the proteolytic cleavage of the large, type-1 integral membrane-spanning glycoprotein APP by secretases. It has two different pathways, the amyloidogenic pathway and the nonamyloidogenic pathway. The amyloidogenic pathway is beta-secretase cleaves APP to generate APPsB, a 100-kDa soluble NH2-terminal fragment and a 12-kDa membranebound carboxyl-terminal fragment. Hence, the nonamyloidogenic pathway is that cleaved within its amyloid-beta region (aminoacids 16-17), at the alpha-secretase cleavage site, to produce an N-terminal fragment, APPsa, and a C-terminal APP fragment of 83 amino acids (Kang et al,1987). In normal mechanism of the brain, there is stable distribution of beta-amyloid in the brain and this intracellular beta-amyloid is essentially in the entire life indicated that beta-amyloid within neurons represents a product of normal metabolism. The two most common species of beta-amyloid are AB40 and AB42. Beta-amyloid will start to accumulate during younger times and with increasing in age, the amount will progressively increase. During middle ages like 35 years, beta-amyloid associated neuropathology will accelerate tremendously. The soluble APP is the most toxic APP which can have neurotrophic activities and longer aggregating forms. The amyloid-beta protein at high concentration will lead to neurotoxic whereas at low concentration it can function as a neurotrophic factor. When amyloid-beta protein is oxidized, the solubility will decrease and hen will result in the accumulation of the intracellular microglial. This accumulation will increase the concentration of amyloid-beta protein and lead to more plaque formation. Amyloid-beta protein will also induce oxidative stress directly and activating microglia indirectly (Yankner et al, 1990). Although it has been a strong standing that amyloid-beta protein contributes to the Alzheimer disease but there is evidence that amyloid-beta protein is very useful in our body. Amyloid-beta protein provides an important role in both synapse and in synaptic structure-functional plasticity that underlie learning and memory (Koudinov et al, 2001). The autopsy studies in brains of older Down syndrome individuals showed that senile plaque and neurofibrillary tangles and in the brains and some indivuals show a much earlier onset. This maybe suggest that there is an apoptotic action happening and may result in the large amount of neuronal death in the brain. It has been studies to show that APP metabolism in involved in the peripheral tissues. Changes occurs in APP metabolism is noted in the platelets, lymphocytes and fibroblasts in both Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease individuals. This change in APP showed that there is two to three fold of increase plasma concentration in both amyloid-beta protein(1-40) and amyloid-beta protein(1-42) in Down syndrome individuals and also increase of mRNA of APP. The Beta-site APP-cleaving 2 enzyme (BACE2) BACE is a transmembrane aspartyl protease and has a second protein called BACE2 that is 55% identical to BACE.BACE2 has two active site motifs of aspartic protinases which are located at residues 93 to 96 of DTGS and residues 289 to 292 of DSGT. BACE2 has a minor cleavage site at the beta-site of APP and also a major cleavage in the beta-amyloid region that is close to the alpha-secretase site. BACE2 is said to contribute to the amyloid-beta protein production. Some authors investigate the expression of BACE2 in the frontal context of the Down syndrome patients and hence, the immunoreactivity of BACE2 in Down syndrome patients with Alzheimer disease and control is compared. The results show that in neurorofibrillary tangle-bearing neurons there is BACE2 but not in those Down syndrome patient without Alzheimer disease. So, this will give an indication that BACE2 contribute to the Alzheimer-type neuropathology of Down syndrome (Barbiero et al, 2002). In Alzheimer individual platelets, there is a significant amount of reduction in the BACE2 which suggest that this BACE2 cause increase Alzheimer neuropathology. The Down syndrome critical region gene 1 (DSCR1) and The Intersectin 1 (ITSN1) The DSCR1 gene is located at the human chromosome 21 and it encodes for the calcipressin 1 which inhibit calcineurin activity by interacting with calcineurin A. So, phosphorylation of calcipressin 1 will inhibit the activity of calcineurin and this will allow the control the half life of calcipressin by increasing its degradation. To protect the cells from getting damaged, negative feedback mechanism of DSCR1 gene should be activated. In brain, heart and skeletal muscle, the DSCR1 is highly expressed. It was shown that DSCR1 is over expressed in the individual brain of the Down syndrome fetuses and post mortem and for those Alzheimer disease individuals, they also showed DSCR1 mRNA levels to be two to three times higher than the control. Basically, overexpression of DSCR1 can affect two calcineurin-dependent pathways by blocking calcineurin activity. So, when there is an increase of DSCR1, it may disrupt endocytosis and the vesicle recycling because of the calcineurin-dependent dephosphin dephosphorylation. Next, the hyper The ITSN1gene is located in human chromosome 21 and it encodes for endocytic protein ITSN1. In this gene, there are two major mRNA transcripts which divided into 6kb and 11kb, short and long isoforms. These isoforms are expressed in the brain but in different cell types. It has been detected in western blotting that long form is neuronal specific while the short form is in glial cells and for those Down syndrome individual, there is an over expression of the long isoform in the brain. These genes are involved in the neruronal endocytosis in the pathology of the Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease. In neuronal endocytosis, it is very important for the neuronal repair and survival as the secretory vesicles need to be reuptake during the synaptic transmission after any neuronal damage. The Minibrain-Kinase Gene The gene minibrain-kinase maybe associated with Down syndrome. This gene is encoded to the Down syndrome critical region 21q22.2. There has been studies that showed that the over expression will cause congnitive impairments with Down syndrome and increases in apoptotic cell death and reduction in neuronal differentiation which altered neuronal plasticity and intellectual disability observed in Down syndrome (Murakami et al, 2006). The Immune System Astrocytes also play an important role in old Down syndrome patients brain. Upon activation in the brain of the Down syndrome patient, it will express more of the S100B, an astrocyte-derived neurite growth-promoting factor. S100B is associated in dystrophic neurite formation and in plaque evolution and also in neurofibrillary tangle evolution in Alzheimer disease. S100B is secreted by astrocytes and increase the intraneuronal free calcium levels and stimulates the growth of neuronal processes. In the studies of S100B, it showed that the number of astrocytes expressing S100B in Down syndrome patient was about twice as that to the controls of all ages. Another way to test for the relationship between Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease is by the complement cascade, C1q. C1q accumulates in amyloid-beta protein deposits in neurons within Down syndrome brain. In this case, the increase level of C1q will suggest that it is responsible for the acceleration phase of Alzheimer disease pathogenesis in Down syndrome patient (Stoltzner et al, 2000). The Oxidative Stress Another factor that is involved in both Alzheimer disease and Down syndrome is oxidative stress. As we all know that oxygen is very important for life but the byproducts are very harmful. These byproducts include reactive oxygen species like superoxide and hydroxyl and hydrogen peroxide and peroxynitrite (Andersen et al.,2004). The amyloid precursor protein and the cytoplasmic enzyme Cu2+/Zn2+ superoxide dismutase (SOD-1) are responsible for reactive oxygen species homeostasis. SOD-1 is responsible for the first line of antioxidant defense by catalyzing the dismutation of O2à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¢- to molecular oxygen (O2) and H2O2, which can be converted by catalase (CAT) and by (selenium-containing) glutathione peroxidase (GPX) to water. Since SOD-1 is located at chromosome 21, so the trisomy of chromosome 21 will lead to accumulation of hydrogen peroxide because of the imbalance in the ratio of SOD-1 to CAT and GPX. Hence, this will lead to the increase of neuronal cell death which also c ontributes to the progressive mental decline in both Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease. In peripheral tissues, SOD-1 has 50% more in patients than normal in the immune system. Hence, it will disrupt the immune system to make the patients to be weaker (Benzi et al, 1997). The E2F-1 Gene The E2F-1 gene is located in human chromosome 20. It encodes a protein E2F-1 transcriptional factor E2F-1. This transcription factor plays major role in in the control of cell cycle, action of tumor suppressor proteins and DNA damage to apoptosis. The ETS2 Gene The ETS2 gene is located on human chromosome 21q22.2. This gene encodes for a protein Protein C-ets-2 which is a transcriptional factor of beta-APP gene. It will specifically bind to the beta-APP promoter and work with transcription factor AP1 (Wolvetang et al, 2003). The Oestrogen Hormone Oestrogen has a role of protecting neurons from the toxic effect by amyloid-beta , ameliorated the cerebral metabolism and also increase the level of acetylcholine in the basal forebrain and hippocampus. It also has the antioxidant effect which is very helpful towards Alzheimer disease. Other beneficial impacts include reduction of the lipid peroxidation, prevention intracellular peroxide accumulation and reduce the degradation of the neurons in the brain. So, it is said that estrogens reduce the occurrence of Alzheimer disease of Down syndrome woman. Woman patients with Down syndrome may have an earlier occurrence or more serve form of Alzheimer disease when these women has early onset of menopause compared to those late menopause women (Schupf et al., 2006). But those post-menopause women that receive estrogen replacement therapy may have a lower occurrence in having Alzheimer disease. The Apolopoprotein E Gene Another factor that attribute to the late onset of Alzheimer disease is Apolopoprotein E (APOE) gene. This gene is located on chromosome 19 and has 3 types of alleles (Corder et al., 1993). The allele that is responsible for Alzheimer disease is APOE ÃŽÂ µ4 allele. It is found that patients with Alzheimer disease has higher frequencies of the APOE ÃŽÂ µ4 allele compared with those without other APOE genotypes and have a earlier onset of Alzheimer disease (Corder et al., 1993). Another allele that has good contribution towards Alzheimers disease for adults with Down syndrome is APOE ÃŽÂ µ2. It is the least common allele but can reduce the risk of Alzheimers disease for adults with Down syndrome (Schupf et al,1996). Cholesterol is transported by high-density lipoproteins such as APOE, and these suggested of the hypothesis that the relationship between APOE and risk of Alzheimers disease may be linked to cholesterol metabolism. Statins or HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors are currently the most widely prescribed class of cholesterol lowering medication. In a number of studies, it has been shown that the use of statin does reduced the risk of the Alzheimers disease. So, for participants with a total cholesterol level of 200 mg/dL or more, the effect of statin significantly lower the risk of dementia compared to that of other participants with lower total cholesterol (Green, Jayakumar, Benke, Farrer, 2002). The Sortilin-related receptor-1 Gene On chromosome 11 (11q24.1), there is this gene called sortilin-related receptor-1 gene (SORL1). It is a 250-kDa membrane protein that is expressed in the neurons of the nervous system. The SORL1 gene has the role of intracellular trafficking between membrane and hence, interacting with amyloid precursor protein (APP) in endosomes and golgi. This gene function to get rid the excess beta amyloid protein. So, when there is little expression of this gene, it will cause to the increase of beta amyloid protein hence it will lead to the accumulation of beta amyloid protein. Since there is already a large amount of beta amyloid protein in the brains of the Down syndrome patients, then it will have problem to decrease the amount of beta amyloid protein so it will increase the risk of having Alzheimer disease. (Rogaeva et al, 2007) The Phorsphorylation Phosphorylation is a mechanism that controls the activity of enzymes and receptors by switching on the regulation of the cell function. Constant activation of the phosphorylation mechanism will increase the accumulation of the of neurofibrillary tangles, abnormal twisted protein filaments that form within affected neurons and are composed mainly of hyperphosphorylated tau protein (Hardy et al, 1991). So, the hyperphosphorylated tau protein in the brain of the transgenic mice with extra human minbrain-kinase gene also give us the indication of the overexpression of minibrain-kinase could contribute to the early onset of Alzheimers disease associated with Down syndrome ( Wegiel et al, 2008). The Age There have been studies that suggest that overall dementia risk increases beginning in the late 40s or early 50s and even some twenty years earlier than it does within the general population. However, there is still some individuals vary on the onset age. A small minority of adults with Down syndrome begin to experience substantial declines in cognition before age 50, yet another minority is able to mature well into their late 60s or early 70s without experiencing signs or symptoms of Alzheimers disease (Schupf, 2002). There are studies on the different ages of mothers who give birth to their children to have risk of having dementia. The results showed a four-fold increase in risk of dementia among mothers who gave birth to their children with Down syndrome less than 35 years of age compared with mothers who were older than 35 years when their child with Down syndrome was born or compared with mothers of children with other intellectual disabilities (Schupf et al., 1994). The Biomarkers Biomarkers are used to monitor diseases progression so it is very useful in quantifying the effects of any available treatment regimen. Because biomarkers are strongly associated with disease risk, detection of early changes in biomarker levels provides an opportunity for early intervention to delay or prevent disease onset (Lesko Atkinson, 2001). To date, validated biomarkers for Alzheimers disease in adults with Down syndrome have yet to be discovered. However, there are some biomarkers that have been investigated. These include measures of the quantity and type of beta amyloid protein found in blood plasma and telomere size in metaphase and interphase preparations as well as on individual chromosomes (Schupf, Patel et al., 2001). There is a close relationship between Down syndrome and Alzheimer disease mainly cause by the overexpression of the APP gene and lead to the over production of the protein, amyloid-beta protein(1-40/42), the major contribution to Alzheimer disease pathogenesis in Down syndrome patient. It is reported in both cross-sectional and prospective analyses that beta-amyloid 1-42 levels increased in demented adults with Down syndrome but not beta amyloid 1-40 levels. For people who are nondemented but with high plasma beta-amyloid 1-42 levels were over two times as likely to develop Alzheimers disease as those with lower levels (Schupf, Patel et al., 2001). Telomeres are DNA sequences that located at the end of the chromosome which is a series of repeats of the TTAGGG nucleotide sequence. These DNA sequences undergo shortening with each cell division, serving as markers of a cells replicative history and an indicator of cellular aging. Using quantitative telomere protein nucleic acid fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH) analyses of metaphase and interphase preparations from age matched pairs of participants with Down syndrome with and without dementia, there are four observations being observed. The first observation is there are shorter telomeres in individuals with dementia. Next, the individual chromosomes 1 and 21 could be used alone and/or in combination to detect telomere shortening. The third observation is that the cells from individuals with dementia or MCI had reduced numbers of telomere signals when analyzed using a PNA telomere probe, and lastly the shorter telomeres in individuals with MCI (Jenkins, Velinov, Ye, Gu, Li et al., 2006). The Conclusion In conclusion, Down syndrome showed that it has a relationship with the pathology of Alzheimer disease. Triplication of chromosome 21that causes over expression of the amyloid-beta protein is the major cause towards the pathology of Alzheimer disease. Not only so, some other sub factors also contribute to it. After understanding the various causes that resulted in Down syndrome patients to have Alzheimer disease, it will be easier for us to invent more ways to treat all these symptoms and hence it will definitely benefit a lot of people that are associated with these diseases.

Old And New Imperialism :: Imperialism History Essays

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  There were two different time periods where Imperialism occurred. The first wave of imperialism, called the 'Old' Imperialism, lasted from around 1500 - 1800. The 'New' Imperialism lasted from around 1870 - 1914. The three main differences that we will discuss today are the differences in economics, politics, and the motive behind all of this.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The new and the old waves of imperialism were very much different through economics. The old economics was pretty much all about trading, they imply bought the wares brought to them by the native merchants. They didn?t have much of a money system; it was sort of a trade system. Also in old imperialism they had trade commerce on much of the coast in South America as well as Islands near Asia and England. So the wave of old imperialism was all about trading. However, the new imperialism had a different economic idea. They didn?t just want the goods of native merchants; they wanted special types of predicts. They would move into countries to get their products. Instead of having trade centers along coasts, they would set up plantations, docks, and factories in other countries. They also got as much money as they could out of people; it was all about getting money in the new imperialism unlike that of the old imperialism.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The new and old waves of imperialism also differed politically. In new imperialism, they wanted to dominate politically, they wanted their politics to dominate and rule everything. They wanted to dominate in order to secure their investments. Although in old imperialism the people didn?t care so much to have political power everywhere, they just wanted someone to rule them and keep trade going in the countries that they are living in.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The motive in the new wave of imperialism and in the old wave of imperialism had a great difference. Old imperialism?s motives was mainly about bringing civilization to other countries, and teach them how to live. They just wanted glory, gold, and they wanted the satisfaction of thinking they did something good in Gods eyes. But the new motive is completely different. In the new wave of imperialism they wanted to take over already largely populated areas.